Afternoon Tea
The beginning of the women's rights movement in the United States is often marked as July 13, 1848. On that day, a group of women came to the home of Elizabeth Cady Stanton for afternoon tea. From their conversations that afternoon, a declaration was made and events leading to the first women's rights convention were set in motion.
Seneca Falls
One result of the afternoon tea was the Seneca Falls Convention, which was held July 19-20, 1848. During the convention Stanton presented the Declaration of Sentiments. The first convention led to several other conventions at locations around the country in the years leading up to the Civil War.
19th Amendment
Eventually, the work that began at the afternoon tea would lead to women being granted the right to vote. The 19th Amendment was passed by Congress in 1919 and was ratified in 1920.
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Women's Rights in America
Educated, modern, intelligent and liberated women are the pillars on which a society stands. Today, women in America have the same rights as men. They work, live, vote, have all the legal, social, and financial rights just as men. But this was not always the case. Let's trace their history from the colonial times to the present.
Position of Women in Colonial Times
In the early seventeenth century, the American society was primarily male dominated. The women acted as subordinates to their husbands and were expected to bear and rear god fearing children. Till about eighteenth century, they could not enter into contracts, sue, or divorce anyone.
It was not until the late seventeenth century that, some changes were observed with regards to the role of women. John Locke, an English philosopher, considered to be the 'father of liberalism', promoted the concept of marriage being a relationship based on love and companionship, rather than a contract in which the husband is the ruler, and wife his subservient. British philosophies like these, started finding a foothold in the American society, influencing both men and women.
American revolution, which started in 1760, brought with it the concept of 'Republican Motherhood'. According to this concept, the role of women in society was not just relegated to domesticity, in fact they had a huge political role to play as well. According to this concept, it was the mother's duty to raise children who valued patriotism and was ready to sacrifice herself for the country, and in order to fulfill this role, she needed to be well educated and well aware, just as a man, so that she is able to do justice to it. Thus, American revolution and the philosophies of John Locke, were both responsible for promoting the concept of women as politically important people.
Seneca Falls Convention and the 'Declaration of Sentiments'
The abolitionist movement started in the 1800's. Its main aim was to end slavery. This movement was greatly supported by the northern states but the southern states were totally against it. Both men and women equally participated in this movement and among the prominent leaders of the movement was Lucretia Mott. When Lucretia Mott, along with her husband, went to attend the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in the year 1840, she being a woman, was not allowed to do so. It was then that, Mott decided to fight and work for women. She was joined by Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
The movement for women's rights in the United States actually began in the year 1848, during the Seneca Falls Convention, in which Stanton presented 'Declaration of Sentiments', demanding equal rights, including voting rights. The declaration of sentiments was modeled on the United States' declaration of independence. The Seneca Falls convention was attended and supported by around three hundred participants, including prominent women leaders like Lucretia Mott and Mary Ann M'Clintock.
Right to Vote in America and the World War 1
After the American civil war (1861-1865), through the 'Emancipation Proclamation' and the various amendments to the constitution, such as the 13th, 14th, and the 15th amendment, slavery was abolished, and the right to vote was granted to everybody, irrespective of one's color, status, and race. However, women were still not given their due, as right to vote was still not granted to them. This denial of suffrage, led to the formation of two organizations, namely 'National Woman Suffrage Association' and 'American Woman Suffrage Association', both of which worked for getting equal voting rights for women.
In the year 1890, the two groups were united under one organization, which was named the 'National American Woman Suffrage Association'. In the year 1900, Carries Chapman Catt was elected the president of this newly formed organization, which continuously put its cause before the congress from the year 1869 to 1919. Another organization by the name of 'National Woman's party' was founded by Lucy Burns and Alice Paul, which worked towards getting a constitutional amendment passed for the rights of women. Finally, it was in the year 1920 that women were granted the right to vote, through the nineteenth amendment to the US constitution, passed in the year 1919.
World War 1, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, had a big role to play in this movement. In fact, women got their voting rights, largely due to this world war. When president Woodrow Wilson proclaimed that the world war was a war of democracy, many women protested and agitated, demanding democratic right to vote, which was finally granted by the president through the nineteenth amendment.
Women's Civil Rights Movement in America
Women's role in society and granting of civil rights to them mainly took place due to economic considerations. After the great depression and the stock market crash which took place in the year 1929, many women had to compulsorily work outside their homes to supplement their family income. When World War 2 broke out, men had to leave their homes to serve as soldiers in the army. This created a labor shortage, which was compensated by the women. Many entered the workforce during this time, making them important contributors in their families' income.
The economic expansion that took place between the 1950 and 1970, further helped many American women to become part of the workforce. To ensure their safety at the workplace and otherwise, various laws have been passed, such as the 1973 law giving them freedom in reproductive choice, 1978 prohibition against discrimination of pregnant women in employment, 1984 Child support and protection of pension rights for divorced women and widows, 1990 Federal funds for child care, and 1994 Protection against violence.
Although granting these rights have given them equal opportunities and status in the economic, social, and political spheres of life, yet there are a lot of pending issues which still need to be taken care of. When it comes to top positions in an organization, they face the 'glass ceiling', i. e. very few reach the top. Also, balancing both home and work can take its toll, resulting in either women remaining childless or giving up their jobs to take care of the family. In spite of these challenges, they have made lots of progress from the colonial times, when they were just 'subordinates', to the present day when they are working shoulder to shoulder with men, and are highly optimistic of a future, when any differential treatment meted out on the basis of sex will be nonexistent.
Women's rights movement in Iran
The Iranian women's movement is based on the Iranian women 's social movement for women's rights. This movement first emerged some time after the Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1910, the year in which the first Women Journal was published by women. The movement lasted until 1933 in which the last women’s association was dissolved by the Reza Shah Pahlavi ’s government. It heightened again after the Iranian Revolution (1979). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Between 1962 and 1978, the Iranian women's movement gained tremendous victories: women won the right to vote in 1963 as part of Mohammad Reza Shah's White Revolution. and were allowed to stand for public office, and in 1975 the Family Protection Law provided new rights for women, including expanded divorce and custody rights and reduced polygamy. [ 3 ] Following the 1979 Revolution, several laws based on gender discrimination were established such as the introduction of mandatory veiling and public dress code of females. [ 4 ] Women's rights since the Islamic Revolution has varied. About 9% of the Iranian parliament members are women, while the global average is 13%. [ 5 ]
The women's rights movement in Iran continues to attempt influencing reforms, particularly with the One Million Signatures Campaign to End Discrimination Against Women. [ 6 ]
Contents
After the Constitutional Revolution [ edit ]
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The early cores of consciousness of women's rights (or rather lack of rights) which lead to establishment of societies and magazines started shortly after. The low status of women and secret operation of many of their organizations and societies, have somewhat limited the amount of data on the subject. Women's writing in that era, mainly through newspapers and periodicals are one of the most valuable sources of information on the movement. Most important of these periodicals are listed below. [ 7 ]
Additionally, Iranian women were aware of women's conditions and educational opportunities elsewhere and inspired by them. [ 8 ]
Education [ edit ]
Women activists determined that education was key. The argument they put forward was that giving women education was best for Iran, in that the mothers would raise better sons for their country. At the beginning of the century, foreign missionaries founded the first school for girls, which was attended mostly by religious minorities. Haji-Mirza Hassan Roshdieh and Bibi Khanoom Astarabadi later also founded schools for girls, but both were quickly closed. Eventually, in 1918, after years of private and unregulated schools, the government provided funds to establish ten primary schools for girls and a teacher training college. From 1914 to 1925, the women's publications expanded beyond discussions of education onto subjects such as child marriage, economic empowerment, and the rights and legal status of women.
Societies and Organizations [ edit ]
In 1906, despite the parliament refusing their request to be allowed to organize in political societies, women created several organizations, including the society for women's freedom, which met in secret until it was discovered and attacked. The Jam'iat e nesvan e vatan-khah (Patriotic Women’s League) was born around 1918; it published Nosvan Vatankhah. In 1922, Mohtaram Eskandari created the patriotic women's organization. She was arrested and her house was burned. Zandokht Shirazi. another women activist, organized the Women's Revolutionary Association. During this early phase of the women's movement, the women who became involved were in general daughters, sisters and wives of well-known constitutionalists. In general too, they were from educated middle-class families. The low status of women and secret operation of many of their organizations and societies have somewhat limited the amount of data on the subject.
Early Publications [ edit ]
Women's writing in that era, mainly through newspapers and periodicals are one of the most valuable sources of information on the movement. Some of the most important periodicals of that era are listed below (the year of publication of the first issue is mentioned in brackets, sometimes with the city of publication): [ 1 ] [ 8 ]
Danesh [=Knowledge] (1910) was the first weekly magazine, founded by a women's society, with a female editor; it was published by a doctor's wife and written for women.
Shekoofeh [=Blossom] (1913) was edited by a woman, Mariam Mozayen-ol Sadat. Its primary goal was the education of women against superstition and acquainting them with world literature.
Zaban-e Zanan [=Women's voice] (1919 in Isfahan ), was one of the more hardcore publications, founded and edited by Sediqeh Dowlatabadi in 1919 in Isfahan. It was one of the harshest critics of the veil (Hijab ).
Nameh-ye Banovan [=Women's letter], created in 1921 and edited by Shahnaz Azad, was another critic of the veil. The purpose of the magazine, as stated below its title, was "awakening of the suffering Iranian Women".
Peyk-e Saadat-e Nesvan (in Rasht ), was published by the Peyk-e Saadat-e Nesvan Society. It was one of the first leftist journals in Iran. Roshank No'doost (1899-?) was one of its founders.
Alam Nesvan [=Women's Universe] (1920 in Tehran ), was published by Association of Graduates of Tehran's American Girls' School. This magazine had a more informative than political tone, at least initially. Over time it became more critical and outspoken. it was a particularly Western-oriented paper. Alam Nesvan was one of the longer-lasting publications on women's issues. Its relative long survival (14 years) might have been due to its association with the above-mentioned school.
Jahan Zanan [=Women's World] (1921, initially in Mashhad ), was published by Afaq Parsa. Despite its relatively moderate tone, the editor faced severe vindictiveness and animosity from local conservatives.
Nosvan Vatankhah [=Patriotic Women] (1922), published by Jamiat Nesvan Vatankhah Iran [=Patriotic Women's League of Iran or Society of Patriotic Women] was a major advocate of women's rights. The publisher was Mohtaram Eskandari .
Dokhtran Iran [=Daughters of Iran] (1931 initially in Shiraz ) was a newspaper published by Zandokht Shirazi. a prominent feminist, poet and school teacher, who was an activist from an early age.
Jam'iyat-e nesvan by Molouk Eskandiari.
Reza Shah era (1925–1963) [ edit ]
Women’s first strides were in education: in 1928, they were provided with financial support to study abroad; in 1935 they were admitted to Tehran University, [ 9 ] and in 1944 education became compulsory. In 1932, the second Congress of Women of the East was organized in Tehran, and Iranian women activists met with activists from Lebanon, Egypt, India and Iraq. [ 8 ] Dowlatabadi was the secretary. In 1936, Reza Shah Pahlavi set the mandatory unveiling of women—a highly controversial policy which nonetheless was significant for the desegregation of women. [ 8 ]
The 1940s saw a heightened consciousness of the role of women in society; and the 1950s the birth of numerous women’s rights organizations, among which Rah-e Now (New Path) founded by Mehrangiz Dowlatshahi in 1955, [ 10 ] and Women’s League of Supporters of the Declaration of Human Rights founded by Safieh Firouz in 1956. [ 11 ] In 1959 fifteen of those organizations formed a federation called the High Council of Women’s Organizations in Iran . [ 12 ] The High Council decided to concentrate its efforts on women’s suffrage.
Despite much opposition by clerics, the suffrage was gained in 1963 when a national referendum reflected general support for the 6-point reform program known as the White Revolution which included women’s right to vote and to stand for public office. Six women were elected to Parliament ( Majlis ). [ 9 ]
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi era (1963–1978) [ edit ]
Women Parliamentarians of Iran in mid 1970s
In the late 1960s, women entered the diplomatic corps, the judiciary and police force, and the revolutionary service corps (education, health and development): [ 13 ] in 1968, Farrokhroo Parsa became Minister of Education - she was the first woman to hold a cabinet position; in 1969 the judiciary was opened to women and five female judges were appointed, including future Nobel prize winner Shirin Ebadi. Women were elected to town, city and county councils. [ 14 ]
Looking for a way to achieve a more viable organization structure for women’s activities, a coalition of women’s groups forms the Women’s Organization of Iran in 1966. [ 15 ]
The Women's Organization of Iran [ edit ]
Though the WOI was patroned by Princess Ashraf (the Shah's twin sister), Iranian women and the WOI had to fight for every improvement in their lives. [ 16 ] The Women’s Organization of Iran was a non-profit grassroots organization working mainly through volunteers. Its goals were to encourage women’s education for change, to work towards securing economic independence for women, and at the same time to remain within the spirit of Islam and the cultural traditions of the nation. It worked through local branches and Women’s Centers, which provided useful services for women – literacy classes, vocational training, counseling, sports and cultural activities and childcare. [ 15 ] [ 17 ]
One of the major victories of the WOI was the Family Protection Law of 1975. It granted women’s equal rights in marriage and divorce, enhanced women’s rights in child custody, increased the minimum age of marriage to 18 for women and 20 for men, and practically eliminated polygamy. [ 18 ]
Abortion was also made legal without arousing much public attention, by removing the penalty for performing the operation embodied in a law dealing with medical malpractice. [ 19 ] All labor laws and regulations were revised to eliminate sex discrimination and incorporate equal pay for equal work. Women were encouraged to run for political office. [ 17 ]
By 1978 nearly 40% of girls 6 and above were literate; over 12,000 literacy corps women were teaching in villages; 33% of university students were women, and more women than men took the entrance exam for the school of medicine. 333 women were elected to local councils, 22 women were elected to parliament, and 2 served in the Senate. There were one cabinet minister (for women’s affairs), 3 sub-cabinet under-secretaries, one governor, an ambassador, and five women mayors. [ 20 ]
Iran has also established itself as playing a leading role for women’s rights among developing countries, introducing ideas and funds for the UN Regional Center for Research and Development for Asia and the Pacific, and the International Center for Research on Women. [ 20 ]
Post-revolutionary period [ edit ]
After the Iranian Revolution in February 1979, the status of women changed substantially. The massive participation of women in the 1978–79 revolution was in part a result of the mobilization efforts of women’s organization in the preceding decades, including the WOI’s activities in the late 1960s and 70s during which women had gained consciousness of their own collective political power, and understood the need for women to assert themselves. Women marched in support of a freer, more egalitarian government. [ 17 ] With passage of time, some of the rights that women had gained under Shah, were systematically removed, through legislation, such as the forced wearing of the hijab. particularly the chador. [ 21 ] Soon after the revolution, there were rumors of plans for forced hijab, and abolition of some women's rights protected by "Family protection act" conceived to be "against Islam". The rumors were denied by some state officials and many women refused to accept it. Not long after, however, the rumors were realized. [ 22 ]
A new family law was annulled, and veiling became obligatory. [ 23 ] Farrokhrou Parsa, the first woman to serve in the Iranian cabinet, was executed. [ 20 ] [ 24 ]
The veiling law was met with protests comprising heterogeneous groups of women. The demonstrations did not aim to expand women's rights in Iran, but simply to keep what they had already earned. There were three major collective attempts to voice concerns: [ 1 ]
A five-day demonstration starting on March 8, 1979
The Conference of Unity of Women in December 1979
Demonstrations after the Ayatollah Khomeini's decree on eliminating any symbol or practice reminiscent of the Shah's rule. A consequence of that decree was forced hijab.
These collective attempts, as well as the smaller ones, not only faced opposition from the Islamic conservatives, but were sometimes damaged by the leftist and rightist political groups, exemplified by the organization of a demonstration scheduled by the Fedai for the same day as that of the Conference of Unity of Women in December 1979 — despite the pleas mentioned above. [ 25 ] In fact, most leftist groups did not have a well-established vision or plan for pursuing women's rights. The status of women, it was presumed, would be improved automatically by the establishment of an ideal socialist/communist society. [ 26 ]
Aspects of Islamic law pertaining to women can be seen in Articles 20 and 21 of the 1979 constitution, and two manifestations of Islamic law are now infamous among women's rights activists: stoning and polygamy. to name two. [ 27 ]
At the beginning of the revolution, some of the leaders of the women’s rights, were discredited. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]
Twenty-First Century Activism [ edit ]
For the first time since the revolution, several women succeeded in 1997 in getting into a stadium to watch a soccer match. [ 30 ] Female legal consultants have been introduced in special family courts. [ 31 ]
One Million Signatures for the Repeal of Discriminatory Laws notable campaign was launched in 2006 to collect one million signatures in support of changing discriminatory laws against women in Iran and reforming of family laws, to ask Parliament for the revision and reform of current laws which discriminate against women. Another campaign was 'Stop Stoning Forever' [ 32 ]
By all accounts, the degree of mobilization and consciousness among women in Iran is remarkable. [ 33 ] The women’s rights movement is vibrant and well-organized. [ 34 ] The movement has also been credited with very smart use of information and communication technologies. [ 35 ] However, the active participation of many women in the revolution helped awaken many women about their political potential, and many middle-class women acted increasingly to support women’s rights. Increasing vocal opposition to policies which sanctioned polygamy, temporary marriage, free divorce for men, and child custody to fathers also took hold. A growing trend of women began to interpret Islam in more gender-egalitarian ways with the entry of more women in the public sphere and limitation of discourse to Islamic parameters. Growing activism and publicity brought some legal remedies to the women’s struggle for example limits on a husband’s right to prevent his wife from taking a job, and a new marriage contract which gave women the right to divorce. Judges became more sympathetic to women’s issues because of the hardship, and when some reforms did not make it through the legislative process, the government tried to ameliorate some of the injustices and gave instructions to the courts on how to do so.
As more Iranian girls were being educated in the 1980s, and the government opened higher religious education to women, some mastered technical forms of Islamic argumentation which helped in the fight for the liberalization of women’s rights. Furthermore many women became successful entrepreneurs, and worked in other highly visible professions including parliament. As stated in an interview in 1996, prominent secular lawyer Mehrangiz Kar stated “The revolution gave women confidence in themselves. With all the sacrifices they made, Iranian women know how much their current and future rulers owe to them. This demand is no longer that of a group of women; it is a nationwide one. The Islamic government cannot escape it without risking a brutal separation of the state and religion.” [ 36 ]
Iranian Feminism [ edit ]
Iranian feminists generally fall into two camps when it comes to the women's rights movement in Iran, post 1979. Some believe that Islamization has resulted in the "marginalizing" of women. Others believe that through the dynamic nature of Islamic law, known as Sharia, a unique consciousness of feminism has been formed in Iran. Both these views have been challenged. [ 37 ]
Among the women's rights activists in Iran, feminism means different things. A major contrast is seen between secular feminists and those who are dubbed Islamic feminists, on the nature of feminism. [ 37 ]
Islamic feminists. or more accurately Muslim feminists, are those women rights advocates who seek to improve the status of women through more favorable interpretations of Islamic law, supporting what is called "Dynamic Interpretation" ("Feqh-e pouya" in Persian). Some Muslim feminists would rather be called "indigenous feminists" ( feminist-e boomi ),they are fighting for more rights for women.
Despite the disagreements among different factions, when it comes to the improvement of women's conditions, feminist groups have shown that they can cooperate with an emphasis on common ground. [ 38 ] The chief editor of Zanan magazin, Shahla Sherkat. for example, a woman with definite religious beliefs, invited prominent Muslim women rights activist Shirin Ebadi. and prominent secular women rights activist Mehrangiz Kar. to write on women's issues in her magazine. [ 37 ] These activists have also taken advantage of new technologies in their efforts for women's rights; Mehrangiz Kar, for example, has taught classes and written manuals on women's rights defense for Tavaana: E-Learning Institute for Iranian Civil Society. [ 39 ]
Women's Studies in Iran [ edit ]
Through the efforts of women's rights advocates in Iran, in 2001 Allameh Tabatabaii University. Tarbiat Modares University. and Alzahra University initiated women's studies programs at the Master of Arts level, and shortly thereafter Tehran University began a similar university course for a degree. There are three sub-specialties: women and family, the history of women, and women's rights in Islam. These programs are needed, it is stated, to try and remedy some of the damage caused by centuries of the dominance of negative views on women, sociologically and humanistically, and other hardships suffered by women in Iran. It is hoped that graduates of women's studies programs will be able to present gender-neutral points of view. [ 40 ]
Activists [ edit ]
Some of the most notable activists are: [ 8 ] [ 25 ]
Womens Rights
Information and Articles About Women’s Rights in America, an important movement in women’s history
The women’s rights movement summary: Women’s rights is the fight for the idea that women should have equal rights with men. Over history, this has taken the form of gaining property rights, the women’s suffrage. or the right of women to vote, reproductive rights, and the right to work for for equal pay.
Women’s Rights Timeline: Here is a timeline of important events in the struggle for women’s liberation in the United States
Pre-settlement . Iroquois women have the power to nominate—and depose—council elders and chiefs.
1647 : Margaret Brent demands two votes from the Maryland Assembly: one as a landowner and one as the legal representative of the colony’s proprietor, Lord Baltimore. She is refused.
1790: New Jersey gives the vote to “all free inhabitants” of the state. It is revoked from women in 1807.
1838: Kentucky allows widows to vote in local school elections, but only if they have no children enrolled.
1840: Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton meet in London, where they are among the women delegates refused credentials to the World Anti-Slavery Convention. Women are very active abolitionists but are rarely in leadership positions.
1848: Mott and Stanton organize the Woman’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N. Y. and take a cue from the Founding Fathers in issuing the Declaration of Sentiments: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal.”
1868: The 14th Amendment guarantees civil rights to all citizens but gives the vote to men only.
1869: Wyoming Territory gives women the right to vote. The national suffrage movement splits into two factions: one that supports the 14th Amendment and the franchise for black men and one that calls for woman suffrage above all else.
1887: Federal legislation to end polygamy in Utah contains a measure to disenfranchise women, who had won the vote there in 1870. They wouldn’t get it back until 1895.
Western women bear the suffrage torch for their Eastern sisters in “The Awakening,” a 1915 cartoon from Puck magazine. (Library of Congress)
1890: Congress threatens to withhold statehood from Wyoming because of woman suffrage. Wyoming threatens to remain a territory rather than give up women’s votes. Congress backs down, and Western states take the lead in giving women full voting rights.
Not every woman supported suffrage. The “Anti” in this 1915 Puck cartoon is backed by morally corrupt interests (“Procurer,” “Child Labor Employer”) and others who supposedly would benefit from denying women the vote. (Library of Congress)
1912: With 4 million women eligible to vote in the West, presidential candidates vie for their attention for the first time. Democrat Woodrow Wilson wins.
1913: Some 8,000 marchers turn out for the first national suffrage parade in Washington, D. C. the day before Wilson’s inauguration.
1915: Suffrage referendums are defeated in Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
1916: Jeannette Rankin of Montana is the first woman elected to the U. S. House of Representatives.
1917: Suffragists picket the newly reelected Wilson in front of the White House, the first time a public demonstration has targeted the presidential home. Throughout the summer, activists are arrested and imprisoned in the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia where they were kept in isolation, beaten and force-fed.
1918: Wilson endorses the 19th Amendment to the Constitution mandating woman suffrage. It narrowly passes in the House, but fails by two votes in the Senate.
1919: On May 21, the Senate defeats the suffrage amendment for a second time by one vote. On June 4, the Senate passes the 19th Amendment by a two-vote margin and sends it to the states for ratification.
1920: On August 18, Tennessee is the 36th state to ratify the 19th Amendment, and “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex” becomes the law of the land.
Women's rights
Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls of many societies worldwide. In some places, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed. They differ from broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls in favour of men and boys. [ 1 ]
History
Ancient cultures
Although males seem to have dominated in many ancient cultures, there are some exceptions. For instance in the Nigerian Aka culture women may hunt, even on their own, and often control distribution of resources. [ 3 ] Ancient Egypt had female rulers, such as Cleopatra .
China
The status of women in China was low, largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women.
Due to the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854–1927) [ 4 ] was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women (???????), [ 5 ] [ 6 ] this College was located in Guangzhou, China, and was enabled by a large donation from Mr. Edward A. K. Hackett (1851–1916) of Indiana, USA. The College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social status. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
Greece
The status of women in ancient Greece varied form city state to city state. Records exist of women in ancient Delphi. Gortyn. Thessaly. Megara and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the time. [ 9 ]
In ancient Athens. women had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos headed by the male kyrios. Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. Once married, the husband became a woman's kyrios. As women were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. [ 10 ] Athenian women had limited right to property and therefore were not considered full citizens, as citizenship and the entitlement to civil and political rights was defined in relation to property and the means to life. [ 11 ] However, women could acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her kyrios had the right to dispose of a woman's property. [ 12 ] Athenian women could enter into a contract worth less than the value of a “medimnos of barley” (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. [ 10 ] Slaves, like women, were not eligible for full citizenship in ancient Athens, though in rare circumstances they could become citizens if freed. The only permanent barrier to citizenship, and hence full political and civil rights, in ancient Athens was gender. No women ever acquired citizenship in ancient Athens, and therefore women were excluded in principle and practice from ancient Athenian democracy. [ 13 ]
By contrast, Spartan women enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life they enjoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted warfare in the 4th century BC Spartan women owned approximately between 35% and 40% of all Spartan land and property. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women. [ 16 ] They controlled their own properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army. [ 14 ] Spartan women rarely married before the age of 20, and unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore short dresses and went where they pleased. [ 17 ] Girls as well as boys received an education, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the Gymnopaedia ("Festival of Nude Youths"). [ 14 ] [ 18 ]
Plato acknowledged that extending civil and political rights to women would substantively alter the nature of the household and the state. [ 19 ] Aristotle. who had been taught by Plato, denied that women were slaves or subject to property, arguing that "nature has distinguished between the female and the slave", but he considered wives to be "bought". He argued that women's main economic activity is that of safeguarding the household property created by men. According to Aristotle the labour of women added no value because "the art of household management is not identical with the art of getting wealth, for the one uses the material which the other provides". [ 20 ]
Contrary to these views, the Stoic philosophers argued for equality of the sexes, sexual inequality being in their view contrary to the laws of nature. [ 21 ] In doing so, they followed the Cynics. who argued that men and women should wear the same clothing and receive the same kind of education. [ 21 ] They also saw marriage as a moral companionship between equals rather than a biological or social necessity, and practiced these views in their lives as well as their teachings. [ 21 ] The Stoics adopted the views of the Cynics and added them to their own theories of human nature, thus putting their sexual egalitarianism on a strong philosophical basis. [ 21 ]
Ancient Rome
For more details on this topic, see Women in ancient Rome .
Couple clasping hands in marriage, idealized by Romans as the building block of society and as a partnership of companions who work together to produce and rear children, manage everyday affairs, lead exemplary lives, and enjoy affection [ 27 ]
In the earliest period of the Roman Republic. a bride passed from her father's control into the "hand" (manus) of her husband. She then became subject to her husband's potestas . though to a lesser degree than their children. [ 28 ] This archaic form of manus marriage was largely abandoned by the time of Julius Caesar. when a woman remained under her father's authority by law even when she moved into her husband's home. This arrangement was one of the factors in the independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period: [ 29 ] although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life, [ 30 ] and her husband had no legal power over her. [ 31 ] When her father died, she became legally emancipated (sui iuris ) . [ 25 ] A married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. [ 25 ] Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce. nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce. [ 32 ] Under classical Roman law. a husband had no right to abuse his wife physically or compel her to have sex. [ 33 ] Wife beating was sufficient grounds for divorce or other legal action against the husband. [ 34 ]
Roman women could appear in court and argue cases, though it was customary for them to be represented by a man. [ 39 ] They were simultaneously disparaged as too ignorant and weak-minded to practice law, and as too active and influential in legal matters—resulting in an edict that limited women to conducting cases on their own behalf instead of others'. [ 40 ] Even after this restriction was put in place, there are numerous examples of women taking informed actions in legal matters, including dictating legal strategy to their male advocates. [ 41 ]
Bronze statuette of a young woman reading (latter 1st century)
The first Roman emperor. Augustus. framed his ascent to sole power as a return to traditional morality. and attempted to regulate the conduct of women through moral legislation. Adultery. which had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized, [ 42 ] and defined broadly as an illicit sex act (stuprum ) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. That is, a double standard was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery when he had sex with a prostitute. slave. or person of marginalized status (infamis ) . [ 43 ] Childbearing was encouraged by the state: the ius trium liberorum ("legal right of three children") granted symbolic honors and legal privileges to a woman who had given birth to three children, and freed her from any male guardianship. [ 44 ]
Stoic philosophies influenced the development of Roman law. Stoics of the Imperial era such as Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of just relationships. While not advocating equality in society or under the law, they held that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously, and that therefore men and women had an equal need for philosophical education. [ 21 ] These philosophical trends among the ruling elite are thought to have helped improve the status of women under the Empire. [ 45 ]
Rome had no system of state-supported schooling, and education was available only to those who could pay for it. The daughters of senators and knights seem to have regularly received a primary education (for ages 7 to 12). [ 46 ] Regardless of gender, few people were educated beyond that level. Girls from a modest background might be schooled in order to help with the family business or to acquire literacy skills that enabled them to work as scribes and secretaries. [ 47 ] The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria. who taught advanced courses to young men and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics. Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria. Cyril. who may have been implicated in her violent death in the year 415 at the hands of a Christian mob. [ 48 ]
Roman law recognized rape as a crime in which the victim bore no guilt. [ 49 ] Rape was a capital crime. [ 50 ] The right to physical integrity was fundamental to the Roman concept of citizenship, as indicated in Roman legend by the rape of Lucretia by the king's son. After speaking out against the tyranny of the royal family, Lucretia killed herself as a political and moral protest. Roman authors saw her self-sacrifice as the catalyst for overthrowing the monarchy and establishing the republic. [ 51 ] As a matter of law, rape could be committed only against a citizen in good standing. The rape of a slave could be prosecuted only as damage to her owner's property. [ 52 ] Most prostitutes in ancient Rome were slaves, though some slaves were protected from forced prostitution by a clause in their sales contract. [ 53 ] A free woman who worked as a prostitute or entertainer lost her social standing and became infamis . "disreputable"; by making her body publicly available, she had in effect surrendered her right to be protected from sexual abuse or physical violence. [ 54 ] Attitudes toward rape changed as the empire came under Christian rule. St. Augustine and other Church Fathers interpreted Lucretia's suicide as perhaps an admission that she had encouraged the rapist and experienced pleasure. [ 55 ] Under Constantine. the first Christian emperor, if a father accused a man of abducting his daughter, but the daughter had given her consent to an elopement, the couple were both subject to being burnt alive. If she had been raped or abducted against her will, she was still subject to lesser penalties as an accomplice, "on the grounds that she could have saved herself by screaming for help." [ 56 ]
Religious scriptures
"And Adam called his wife's name Eve, because she was the mother of all living." (Genesis 3:20)
"Now Deborah, a prophet, the wife of Lappidoth, she judged Israel at that time." (Judges 4:4) (God chose a woman, Deborah, to guide Israel.)
"Mary Magdalene went and said to the disciples, "I have seen the Lord"; and she told them that he had said these things to her." (John 20:18) (The first person to see Jesus after his crucifixion was a woman, Mary.)
However, before and during Biblical times, the roles of women were almost always severely restricted. [ 57 ]
The Qur'an. revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provided guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society. [ 58 ] From 610 and 661, known as the early reforms under Islam. the Qur'an introduced fundamental reforms to customary law and introduced rights for women in marriage, divorce, and inheritance. By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive a dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contract. [ 59 ]
While in customary law, inheritance was limited to male descendants, the Qur'an introduced rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. [ 60 ] According to Annemarie Schimmel "compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law. to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work." [ 61 ]
The general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. [ 62 ] Women generally gained greater rights than women in pre-Islamic Arabia [ 63 ] [ 64 ] and medieval Europe. [ 65 ] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. [ 66 ] According to Professor William Montgomery Watt. when seen in such historical context, Muhammad "can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women's rights." [ 67 ]
The Middle Ages
According to English Common Law. which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbade a husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. [ 68 ] In the 16th century, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger. Aemilia Lanyer. and the prophetess Anna Trapnell. English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. [ 69 ] Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women. until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a patriarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. [ 70 ] This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. [ 71 ]
18th and 19th century Europe
Australian women's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her baby's care on the House Speaker
“All citizens including women are equally admissible to all public dignities, offices and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents”.
Mary Wollstonecraft. a British writer and philosopher, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, arguing that it was the education and upbringing of women that created limited expectations. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] Wollstonecraft attacked gender oppression, pressing for equal educational opportunities, and demanded "justice!" and "rights to humanity" for all. [ 80 ] Wollstonecraft, along with her British contemporaries Damaris Cudworth and Catherine Macaulay started to use the language of rights in relation to women, arguing that women should have greater opportunity because like men, they were moral and rational beings. [ 81 ]
A Punch cartoon from 1867 mocking John Stuart Mill 's attempt to replace the term 'man' with 'person', i. e. give women the right to vote. Caption: Mill's Logic: Or, Franchise for Females. "Pray clear the way, there, for these – a – persons." [ 82 ]
In his 1869 essay The Subjection of Women the English philosopher and political theorist John Stuart Mill described the situation for women in Britain as follows:
"We are continually told that civilization and Christianity have restored to the woman her just rights. Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant of her husband; no less so, as far as the legal obligation goes, than slaves commonly so called."
Then a member of parliament, Mill argued that women deserve the right to vote. though his proposal to replace the term "man" with "person" in the second Reform Bill of 1867 was greeted with laughter in the House of Commons and defeated by 76 to 196 votes. His arguments won little support amongst contemporaries [ 82 ] but his attempt to amend the reform bill generated greater attention for the issue of women's suffrage in Britain. [ 83 ] Initially only one of several women's rights campaigns, suffrage became the primary cause of the British women's movement at the beginning of the 20th century. [ 84 ] At the time, the ability to vote was restricted to wealthy property owners within British jurisdictions. This arrangement implicitly excluded women as property law and marriage law gave men ownership rights at marriage or inheritance until the 19th century. Although male suffrage broadened during the century, women were explicitly prohibited from voting nationally and locally in the 1830s by a Reform Act and the Municipal Corporations Act. [ 85 ] Millicent Fawcett and Emmeline Pankhurst led the public campaign on women's suffrage and in 1918 a bill was passed allowing women over the age of 30 to vote. [ 85 ]
Equal employment rights for women and men
The rights of women and men to have equal pay and equal benefits for equal work were openly denied by the British Hong Kong Government up to the early 1970s. Leslie Wah-Leung Chung (???, 1917–2009), President of the Hong Kong Chinese Civil Servants' Association ??????? [ 86 ] (1965–68), contributed to the establishment of equal pay for men and women, including the right for married women to be permanent employees. Before this, the job status of a woman changed from permanent employee to temporary employee once she was married, thus losing the pension benefit. Some of them even lost their jobs. Since nurses were mostly women, this improvement of the rights of married women meant much to the Nursing profession. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 87 ] [ 88 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ]
Suffrage, the right to vote
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